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Who: Georges Cuvier (1769–1832) What: Promoted polygenism and racial hierarchies through his scientific writings. When: 1817 Details: Georges Cuvier is known for his work in comparative anatomy and paleontology. In his publication "Le Règne Animal" (The Animal Kingdom) in 1817, Cuvier classified humans into different races and argued that Africans were naturally inferior to Europeans. He claimed that physical and intellectual differences between races were inherent and unchangeable. Why and How It Was Racist: Cuvier's classification system reinforced the belief in racial hierarchies and provided a scientific basis for the notion of European superiority, which was used to justify colonialism and the exploitation of non - European peoples. Sources: EncyclopaediaBritannica https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/cuvier.htmlo https://speculativefaith.lorehaven.com/lets-talk-about-race-and-racism-part-5-scientific-racism/

Who: Henry Fairfield Osborn (1857–1935) What: Promoted scientific racism through his writings on eugenics and human evolution. When: 1896 Details: Henry Fairfield Osborn was a prominent scientist who served as the president of the American Museum of Natural History. In his 1896 publication, "From the Greeks to Darwin," Osborn promoted the idea of racial hierarchies and the superiority of the "Nordic" race. He was a leading figure in the American eugenics movement and used his scientific influence to support policies of racial purity and segregation. Why and How It Was Racist: Osborn's work provided a scientific rationale for eugenics and racial discrimination, reinforcing the belief in the inherent superiority of certain races and justifying policies that aimed to preserve racial purity. Sources: Regal, B. (2018). Henry Fairfield Osborn: Race and the Search for the Origins of Man . Routledge. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/environmentalisms-racist-history

Who: Louis Agassiz (1807–1873) What: Promoted polygenism, the belief in separate origins for different races. When: 1850 Details: Louis Agassiz was a prominent naturalist who strongly advocated for polygenism is the idea that different races were created separately and were fundamentally different in terms of biology and intelligence. In his 1850 essay, "The Diversity of Origin of the Human Races," published in the "Christian Examiner," Agassiz argued that Africans were a separate species and inherently inferior to Europeans. His theories were influential in the United States, providing a scientific basis for racial segregation and discrimination. Why and How It Was Racist: Agassiz's work lent scientific credibility to the notion of racial hierarchy and was used to justify slavery and segregation. His views reinforced the belief in the innate inferiority of non-white races. Sources: https://eps.harvard.edu/history-of- racism#:~:text=Louis%20Agassiz%20(1807%2D1873),racial%20segregation %20and%20white%20supremacy. https://collections.countway.harvard.edu/onview/exhibits/show/this- abominable-traffic/agassiz-and-polygenism

Who: Paul Broca (1824–1880) What: Conducted research on brain size and its relation to intelligence, contributing to scientific racism. When: Mid to late 19th century Details: Paul Broca is known for his research on brain size and the development of Broca's area, a region of the brain linked to speech. He measured skulls and brains, claiming that larger brain sizes indicated higher intelligence. Broca's studies often concluded that white Europeans had larger brains and were, therefore, more intelligent than other races. His work supported the racist ideologies of his time and was used to justify the oppression of non-European peoples. Why and How It Was Racist: Broca's research reinforced the idea of white superiority and provided a scientific basis for racial discrimination and colonialism. Sources: https://hiphilangsci.net/2020/06/08/racialization-language-science/ https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/people/cp46570/paul -broca

What: J. Marion Sims conducted surgical experiments on enslaved Black women without anesthesia. When: 1840s Where: Alabama, USA. Details: Sims performed experimental surgeries on enslaved women to develop techniques for repairing vesicovaginal fistulas. These procedures were extremely painful and were done without anesthesia, based on the belief that Black women felt less pain than white women. Why and How It Was Racist: Sims' experiments exploited enslaved women and were conducted under the racist belief that Black individuals had higher pain tolerance. The perceived inferiority of Black people justified these unethical practices. Sources: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-00340- 5#:~:text=In%20the%201840s%2C%20the%20Alabama,they%20became%2 0addicted%20to%20it. WallL.L.(2006).The medical ethics of Dr J MarionSims: a fresh look at the historical record. Journal of Medical Ethics, 32(6), 346–350. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.2005.012559

What: Forced sterilization of Black women in the United States under the guise of medical treatment. When: 1920s-1980s Where: Southern United States. Details: Black women were often sterilized without their knowledge or consent during routine medical procedures, which became known as the "Mississippi appendectomy." These procedures were part of a broader eugenics movement aimed at controlling the Black population. Why and How It Was Racist: This practice was rooted in eugenics and racial prejudice, aiming to reduce the Black population through coercive and deceptive medical practices. Sources: https://obgyn.wustl.edu/black-history-month-week-2-fannie-lou-hamer/ o NationalWomen'sLawCenter https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/blog/unwanted-sterilization-and- eugenics-programs-in-the-united-states/ https://academic.oup.com/book/11417/chapter- abstract/160091333?redirectedFrom=fulltext https://blackwomenintheblackfreedomstruggle.voices.wooster.edu/2019/0 5/01/what-the-mississippi-appendectomy-says-about-the-regard-of-the- state-towards-the-agency-of-black-womens-bodies/

What: Radiation experiments conducted on cancer patients, primarily poor Black individuals. When: 1960-1971 Where: Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. Details: Researchers at the University of Cincinnati conducted radiation experiments on cancer patients to study the effects of total body irradiation. Many of the subjects were poor Black patients who were not fully informed of the risks or the experimental nature of the treatment. The experiments aimed to gather data on radiation exposure, which was expected to have applications in both medical treatment and potential military uses. Why and How It Was Racist: The experiments disproportionately targeted Black patients and were conducted without proper informed consent, reflecting systemic racism and exploitation in medical research. The unethical practices of these experiments highlighted the disregard for the rights and safety of marginalized groups in the name of scientific advancement. Sources: TheDarkPastofClinicalTrialsandWhatThatMeansforScienceToday U.S.DistrictCourt,SouthernDistrictofOhio,WesternDivision(1995).Inre Cincinnati Radiation Litigation. Federal supplement , 874 , 796–833.

What: Saul Krugman, MD, deliberately infected institutionalized children with hepatitis. When: 1956-1970 Where: Willowbrook State School, Staten Island, New York, USA. Details: Researchers at Willowbrook State School, a facility for children with intellectual disabilities, deliberately infected children with hepatitis to study the disease's natural history and test potential treatments. Parents were often pressured to consent to their children's participation under misleading circumstances. The researchers justified the experiments by claiming they were conducted in a setting where hepatitis was already prevalent, thus supposedly not increasing the risk to participants. Why and How It Was Racist: While not exclusively targeting Black individuals, the experiments exploited vulnerable children, many from marginalized communities, reflecting broader systemic abuses in medical research. The lack of proper informed consent and the exploitation of children with disabilities underscored the unethical nature of the research, which prioritized scientific inquiry over the welfare of the participants. Sources: https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialSciences/ppecorino/MEDICAL_ETHICS_TEXT /Chapter_7_Human_Experimentation/Case_Study_Willowbrook_Experiments.h tm https://www.forbes.com/sites/leahrosenbaum/2020/06/12/willowbrook - scandal-hepatitis-experiments-hideous-truths-o f-testin g-vaccines -on- humans/ • https://auislandora-stage.wrlc.org/islandora/object/auislandora%3A70871

What: Dermatologist Dr. Albert Kligman conducted experiments on mostly Black inmates at Holmesburg Prison. When: 1951-1974 Where: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Details: Dr. Kligman conducted dermatological experiments on prisoners, testing products like Retin-A and exposing inmates to harmful substances, including dioxin, without their informed consent. The experiments were often conducted under harsh conditions, with little regard for the inmates' health or safety. Why and How It Was Racist: The majority of the inmates subjected to these experiments were Black, reflecting systemic racial exploitation in medical research. The inmates were seen as expendable and were not given the opportunity to provide informed consent. Sources: TheNewYorkTime https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/acres-skin-human- experiments-holmesburg-prison https://prismreports.org/2023/05/15/philadelphia-holmesburg-prison- experiments/ https://www.inquirer.com/politics/philadelphia/philadelphia-apology- holmesburg-prison-experiment-albert-kligman-20221006.html

What: Dr. Thomas Hamilton conducted painful experiments on an enslaved man named John Brown. When: Late 1700s Where: Georgia, USA. Details: Dr. Hamilton conducted cruel experiments on John Brown to test treatments for heatstroke. Brown was subjected to extreme heat and other torturous conditions to observe the effects on his body. Hamilton sought to prove that Black individuals were more resilient to harsh conditions. Why and How It Was Racist: These experiments dehumanized John Brown and were based on the belief that Black people could endure more pain than white people. Hamilton's work aimed to justify the brutal conditions enslaved individuals were forced to endure. Sources: Book: "Medical Apartheid" by Harriet A. Washington https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/racial- differences-doctors.html Brown, J. (1855). Slave life in Georgia: A narrative of the life, sufferings, and escape of John Brown, a fugitive slave, now in England . Xerox University Microfilms.

Date: 1729​ Who: Individual known as “Papan”​ Where: Unkown city, Virginia ​ What: Due to his early effective treatment of skin and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), Virginia legislature freed Papan so he could practice medicine.​ Learn more here​ Savitt, T. L. (2002). Medicine and slavery: The diseases and health care of blacks in antebellum Virginia. University of Illinois Press.​ Williams, R. A., & Williams, R. A. (2020). Profiles in Courage: African American Medical Pioneers in the United States—The Earliest Black Practitioners. Blacks in Medicine: Clinical, Demographic, and Socioeconomic Correlations, 33-59

Date: 1940​ Who: Dr. Percy Julian​ Where: DePauw University, Indiana​ What: Dr. Julian discovered how to extract steroids from soybean oil and synthesize the hormones progesterone and testosterone from them, and then synthesized cortisone, which became used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. He also completed the first total synthesis of a chemical called physostigmine, which was used to treat glaucoma​ Learn more:Percy Lavon Julian - American Chemical Society (acs.org)​ https://youtu.be/vt5dnwjgvPM?si=t6Sj-ue2sj7QJ34V​ https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/percy-lavon-julian/​ https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2208883119​ Barohn, R. J. (2021). Percy Lavon Julian PhD-The Man Who Wouldn’t Give Up. RRNMF Neuromuscular Journal, 2(2), 8-12.​