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What: The Royal Society of London When:1660 Details: Although the Royal Society played a crucial role in the advancement of science, it was also complicit in the racist ideologies of its time. The Society endorsed and supported scientific studies that promoted the idea of racial hierarchies and justified the enslavement and colonization of non-European peoples. Notable members, such as Hans Sloane, were involved in the Atlantic slave trade and conducted studies on the supposed inferiority of Black people. Why and How It Was Racist: The Royal Society's endorsement of racial science provided intellectual legitimacy to racist ideologies and practices. By supporting and publishing pseudoscientific studies on race, the Society reinforced the belief in white superiority. Sources: Govier, M. (1999). The Royal Society, slavery and the island of Jamaica: 1660-1700. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London , 53 (2), 203-217. https://royalsociety.org/about-us/terms-conditions-policies/modern-slavery-statement/ Young, R. M. (1987). Racist society, racist science. Anti-racist science teaching , 16-42 .

Who: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840) What: Developed a racial classification system based on physical anthropology. When: Late 18th century Details: Blumenbach expanded on Linnaeus' work and proposed a racial classification system that included Caucasian, Mongolian, Malayan, Ethiopian, and American. In his work "On the Natural Varieties of Mankind" (1775), he argued that the Caucasian race was the original human type and others were deviations. This pseudoscientific approach further entrenched the concept of racial hierarchies. Why and How It Was Racist: Blumenbach's theories provided a seemingly scientific basis for the belief in white superiority and justified racial discrimination and colonization. Sources: https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/650077.html Keel, T. (2018). Impure thoughts: Johann Blumenbach and the birth of racial science. In Divine Variations: How Christian Thought Became Racial Science (pp. 23-54). Stanford University Press. https://doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9780804795401.003.0002

Who: Samuel George Morton (1799–1851) What: Used craniometry to promote racial hierarchies. When: Early 19th century (Note: While Morton’s work is slightly outside the 1700s timeframe, his influence began in the late 18th century, and he is considered a a foundational figure in scientific racism). Details: Morton collected and measured human skulls, claiming that the size of the skull correlated with intellectual capacity. In his works "Crania Americana" (1839) and "Crania Aegyptiaca" (1844), he argued that Caucasians had the largest skulls and, therefore, the highest intelligence, while Africans had the smallest and were the least intelligent. Why and How It Was Racist: Morton's work was used to justify slavery, segregation, and racial discrimination by providing a scientific rationale for the belief in white superiority. Sources: https://www.penn.museum/about-collections/statements-and- policies/morton-cranial-collection https://www.learningforjustice.org/magazine/how-samuel-morton-got-it- wrong

Who: Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) What: Published "Histoire Naturelle," which included theories about the racial differences among humans. When: Mid-18th century Details: In his multi-volume work "Histoire Naturelle" (1749–1788), Buffon argued that environmental factors, including climate and diet, caused physical and behavioral differences among human races. He claimed that Africans were inferior due to their environment and that Europeans were the pinnacle of human development. Why and How It Was Racist: Buffon's work suggested that racial differences were due to inherent and environmental factors, providing a basis for the belief in European superiority and justifying colonial and imperialist policies. Sources: https://exhibits.lib.unc.edu/exhibits/show/race- deconstructed/classification--

Who: Josiah C. Nott (1804–1873) What: Known for his writings and lectures on the supposed racial differences and the superiority of the white race. When: Mid-19th century Details: Josiah C. Nott co-authored "Types of Mankind" (1854) with George Gliddon, which argued for the polygenist view that different races were created separately and were inherently unequal. Nott used craniometry and other pseudoscientific methods to claim that Africans were biologically inferior to whites. His work was influential in promoting scientific racism and was used to justify slavery and segregation. Why and How It Was Racist: Nott's work perpetuated the belief in racial hierarchies and provided a scientific rationale for the discrimination and dehumanization of Black people. Sources: https://collections.countway.harvard.edu/onview/exhibits/show/this- abominable-traffic/agassiz-and-polygenism/polygenism Byrd, W. M., & Clayton, L. A. (2001). Race, medicine, and health care in the United States: a historical survey. Journal of the National Medical Association , 93 (3 Suppl), 11S. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593958/

What: An organization established to promote the migration of free African Americans to Africa. When:1816 Details: The American Colonization Society was founded with the mission of relocating free Black people from the United States to Africa, specifically Liberia. The society's founders included prominent politicians and slaveholders who saw colonization as a solution to the "problem" of free Blacks in America. The ACS framed its mission as a benevolent effort to provide a "better" home for free African Americans, but it was also a way to remove Black individuals from American society and mitigate the perceived threat they posed to the institution of slavery. Why and How It Was Racist: The ACS operated on the racist assumption that Black people could not coexist with whites in America, and they were inherently inferior and should be segregated. This organization aimed to solve what its members saw as the "problem" of free Blacks in the U.S. by removing them rather than integrating them as equal citizens. Sources: https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1521.html https://aaihs.org/the-american-colonization-society-200-years-of-the- colonizing-trick/ https://www.loc.gov/rr//print/coll/007 -b.html

What: A secret society at Yale University that supported and promoted racial pseudoscience. When: Founded in 1832 Details: The Skull and Bones Society at Yale University included many prominent members who supported the development of racist anthropological theories. These members, influenced by the prevailing scientific racism of the time, conducted and funded studies that sought to prove the superiority of the white race. Their work contributed to the spread of eugenics and other pseudoscientific racial theories. Why and How It Was Racist: The Skull and Bones Society's promotion of racial pseudoscience provided a veneer of intellectual legitimacy to racist ideologies. This perpetuated discrimination and reinforced social hierarchies based on race. Sources: https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/02/skull-and- bones-its-not- just-for-white-dude s-anymore/273463/ https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/01/yale-skull-and-bones- secret-societies-diversity/677030/morton

What: One of the great livery companies of the City of London, involved in trade and commerce. Who: The Worshipful Company of Merchant Taylors When: Established in the 14th century but prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries. Details: The Merchant Taylors' Company was heavily involved in the transatlantic trade, including the trade of enslaved Africans. The company financed voyages and trading ventures that included the acquisition and transport of enslaved people. They played a significant role in the economic systems that depended on slavery. Why and How It Was Racist: The company's involvement in the slave trade was driven by economic interests that disregarded the humanity of Black individuals. By participating in and profiting from the transatlantic slave trade, the Merchant Taylors' Company helped sustain and legitimize the racial hierarchies that underpin slavery. Sources: HistoryoftheMerchantTaylors'Company https://www.city.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/600794/Historic-Sources-of-Funding- Report.pdf

Who The American Philosophical Society What: An academic society founded by Benjamin Franklin that played a significant role in the development of American science. When: 1743 Details: The American Philosophical Society promoted scientific research and intellectual exchange in the American colonies. However, it also supported and published studies that reinforced racial hierarchies. Members, including Thomas Jefferson, used the Society to disseminate their beliefs in the racial inferiority of Black people and justify their subjugation. Why and How It Was Racist: The Society's promotion of pseudoscientific theories about race provided a platform for the justification of slavery and racial discrimination, shaping American scientific and social thought. Sources: https://www.amphilsoc.org/blog/aps-and- inequality#:~:text=Indeed%2C%20throughout%20the%20early%2019th,scientif ically%20established%20differences%20between%20races. Mills, C. (2012). Philosophy raced, philosophy erased. Reframing the Practice of Philosophy: Bodies of Color, Bodies of Knowledge, 45.

What: A study conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service to observe the natural progression of untreated syphilis in Black men. When: 1932-1972 Details: Although slightly outside the 1800s, the Tuskegee Syphilis Study began in 1932 and lasted until 1972. The study involved 600 Black men, 399 of whom had syphilis and 201 who did not. The participants were misled and not given proper treatment, even when penicillin became the standard cure in 1947. The men were left to suffer from severe health complications and even death. Why and How It Was Racist: The study was based on the racist assumption that Black people were inferior and could be used for experimentation without ethical considerations. This violation of medical ethics and human rights exemplifies systemic racism in medical research. Sources:o https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm o https://www.tuskegee.edu/about-us/centers-of-excellence/bioethics- center/about-the-usphs-syphilis-study https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/index.html

Who: Robert Knox (1791–1862) What: Authored works that supported the idea of racial superiority and inferiority. When: 1850 Details: Robert Knox is known for his book "The Races of Men: A Fragment," published in 1850, in which he argued that race was the primary determinant of human behavior and societal development. He claimed that the Anglo-Saxon race was superior to all others and that racial mixing would lead to societal decline. Knox's work was influential in promoting scientific racism in Britain and beyond. Why and How It Was Racist: Knox's pseudoscientific arguments about racial superiority and inferiority provided justification for colonialism, slavery, and racial segregation, reinforcing the belief in white supremacy. Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica Biddiss MD.T hePolitics of Anatomy: Dr Robert Knox and VictorianRacism. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 1976;69(4):245-250. doi:10.1177/003591577606900402

Who: Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) What: Applied the concept of "survival of the fittest" to human societies, promoting Social Darwinism. When: 1864 Details: Herbert Spencer is best known for coining the term "survival of the fittest." In his book "Principles of Biology," published in 1864. He applied Darwinian principles to human societies, arguing that social progress resulted from the survival of the strongest and most capable individuals and groups. Spencer's ideas were used to justify racial and class hierarchies, with the belief that European races were superior and destined to dominate other races. Why and How It Was Racist: Spencer's Social Darwinism provided a scientific veneer to the belief in racial and social hierarchies, justifying imperialism, colonialism, and the oppression of non-white and economically disadvantaged groups. Sources: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Encyclopaedia Britannica